Aconitum

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Aconite [æ′kənait]

Aconitum, common name monkshood and wolfsbane is a group of attractive yet highly poison plants in the crowfoot family. They are native to the northern hemisphere with numerous species distributed throughout the United States and Canada.

Poison resides in the roots and occasionally the flowers. The chemical produced from Aconitum napellus, the European monkshood is a powerful analgesic and diaphoretic drug, used under controlled conditions because it is fatal in large dose. Many species of aconite are cultivated for perennials by gardeners for their appealing tall stalks of helmet-shaped flowers which are varied between blue, yellow, white and occasionally bi-colored.

Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom	Plantae – Vegetal, plants
Subkingdom	Viridaeplantae – green plants
Infrakingdom	Streptophyta – land plants
Division	Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes
Subdivision	Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants
Infradivision	Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms
Class	Magnoliopsida
Superorder	Ranunculanae
Order	Ranunculales
Family	Ranunculaceae – buttercups, boutons d'or, crowfoot
Genus	Aconitum L. – monkshood, aconite, wolfsbane
Direct Children:
Species	Aconitum anthora L. – yellow monkshood
Species	Aconitum X bicolor Schult. (pro. sp.) – twocolor monkshood
Species	Aconitum carmichaelii Debeaux – Carmichael's monkshood
Species	Aconitum columbianum Nutt. – Columbian monkshood
Species	Aconitum delphiniifolium DC.
Species	Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. – Indian aconite
Species	Aconitum fischeri Rchb. – Fischer monkshood
Species	Aconitum lycoctonum L.
Species	Aconitum maximum Pall. ex DC. – Kamchatka aconite
Species	Aconitum napellus L. – Venus' chariot
Species	Aconitum reclinatum A. Gray – trailing white monkshood
Species	Aconitum uncinatum L. – southern blue monkshood
Species	Aconitum variegatum L. – Manchurian monkshood

References and Further Reading

Aconitum L., Taxonomic Serial No.: 18411

Collier's Encyclopedia, ©1960

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Venus Flytrap ( Dionaea muscipula, J. Ellis )

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Venus Flytrap, also known as Venus's Flytrap

The Venus Flytrap is among a group of plants known as Carnivorous plants. There are various types of carnivorous plants, including flowering plants and fungi which prey and feed upon small animals and insects. Such species are sometimes referred to as insectivorous plants.

Governor Arthur Dobbs of North Carolina was the first person to describe the plant. He named it "Fly Trap Sensitive". In 1760 he communicated about the discovery of the plant's peculiar ability to close and trap objects, to Mr. P. Collinson of England. Later, Mr. J. Bartram of Philadelphia sent specimens known to him as "Tipitiwitchet," to Mr. P. Collinson. The species was first described among the scientific community in 1768 by the American botanist J. Ellis in letters to Linnaeus providing a substantial description of the structure and functions of the leaves, suggesting even the insectivorous nature of the species. Linnaeus declared it the most wonderful of plants, Miraculum Naturae. Linnaeus presumed the plant exhibited extreme sensitivity, in which insects were accidentally captured and subsequently allowed to escape.

"But the plant, of which I now enclose you an exact figure, with a specimen of its leaves and blossoms, shews, that nature may have some view towards nourishment, in forming the upper joint of the leaf like a machine to catch food: upon the middle of this lies the bait for the unhappy insect that becomes its prey. Many minute red glands, cover its inner surface, and which perhaps discharge sweet liquor, tempt the poor animal to taste them; and the instant these tender parts are irritated by its feet, the two lobes rise up, grasp it fast, lock the row of spines together and squeeze it to death. And, further, lest the strong efforts for life, in the creature thus taken, should serve to disengage it, three small erect spines are fixed near the middle of each lobe, among the glands, that effectually put an end to all its struggles. Nor do the lobes ever open again, while the dead animal continues there."

The letter which contained inaccuracies did not convince Linnaeus of the plant's carnivorous nature, he believed rather, that the insects were released, and trapped merely due to oversensitivity, being such the case with Mimosa pudica.

Ellis arrived at incorrect conclusions about the functions in the plant, including the three erect spines which were later discovered to be trigger hairs on the inner surface of the trap, and a view shared by Erasmus Darwin, botanist and grandfather of Charles Darwin, who wrote,

"In the Dionaea muscipula there is a still more wonderful contrivance to prevent the depredations of insects: the leaves are armed with long teeth, like the antennae of insects, and lie spread upon the ground around the stem, and are so irritable, that when an insect creeps upon them they fold up and crush or pierce it to death."

However the insectivorous nature of the plant was more elaborately investigated by Charles Darwin and described in his book, Insectivorous Plants (1875).

Charles Darwin observed the plant during its digestive state, noting the abundance of the secreted fluid. Making a small opening at the base of one lobe which contained a large crushed fly, the secretion continued to run down the rootstalk a total of nine days, during which the plant was under steady observation.

The required time for digestion is approximately ten days to complete, after which the leaf reopens. Each leaf, or trap, can capture an average of three or four insects during its life span after which it ceases to function. Otherwise, when the trap has been triggered without successful capture of prey it can open and close many more times.

Ellis named the plant Dionaea. The origin of the name Dionaea has its origin in Greek and Roman mythology. In Greek, Dione is the mother of Aphrodite and at times used as an alternative name for the goddess of love. To the Romans, Venus was the goddess of love.

The Venus Flytrap is a native perennial found near the borders of coastal North and South Carolina around swampy bogs. Seldom ever does the flytrap survive well after relocation from its wet native habitat. Often flytraps are found in the presence of other carnivorous plants such as Sundews, Butterworts, Bladderworts and Pitcher Plants. The flytraps inhabit relatively level areas, and tend not to be found where depressions lie due to excess water. They thrive in damp soil, although it has been observed that during relatively dry periods there is no apparent harm to the plants.

Several methods are employed among carnivorous plants to trap their prey. Venus Flytrap's method is different from many other carnivorous plants and referred to as a "Mechanical Trap," specifically a "snap trap". Each leaf has two lobes, standing at rather less than a right angle to each other. The typical angle formed by the lobes is 40 to 50 degrees.

The upper surfaces are covered with minute circular sessile glands. The prey is trapped by rapid closure of the lobes around the insect when it touches one of the three sensory hairs, or fine-pointed bristles. In rare instances there may be as many as four trigger hairs on each surface. The trap has been compared to a hinge but this is inaccurate because a hinge has an articulated joint. The trap has none. It is equipped with bristles that are sometimes referred to as cilia. There are two types of glands,

1. Alluring glands, which produce a sugary substance which has a pleasant odor to attract insects and arranged along the outside margins of the trap. It has been argued that this arrangement is by design to prevent the smallest insects from tripping closure of the trap, conserving the plant's effort and energies for more desirable prey. Therefore, any insect which is less than ¼ inch in length is too short, but can freely dine on the nectar. In the event a small insect has triggered closure and escapes, the trap will reopen after about a 24 hour period.
2. Digestive-absorptive glands, are conspicuously red in coloration due to a pigment present in the cell fluid: Anthocyanin. If the prey that becomes imprisoned is the correct size for the trap, digestion will occur without any decay. However, the formic acid present in the digestive secretions and process is believed to be a bactericide. Inappropriate objects, such as fat which is placed in the trap, will cause the trap to turn black and decay instead of opening. However, the death of a trap does not spell demise for the entire plant as new traps are in the process of forming during the growing season (70°-100°F), at the base of the rosette.

The glands are structurally identical. Observations indicate the trap will not close unless a single trigger hair is stimulated at least twice, or two hairs stimulated simultaneously or in close succession of 1 to 20 seconds.

This reaction, snapping shut and the leaf closing around the insect, occurs in about half a second in normal daytime temperatures. The spikes interlock, and the insect is trapped. After suitable prey is captured, within thirty minutes a narrowing phase begins in which the lobes become tightly pressed together and the outline of captured prey is visible while soft-bodied insects are crushed. This is followed by the release of digestive enzymes within the trap's interior whilst a protective seal is produced just below the marginal spines. If the insect has not been crushed by the lobes, it is likely the insect drowns in the digestive fluids.

The leaf then forms what may be referred to as a "temporary stomach" of sorts. With the insect imprisoned, the Flytrap's glands pour out a red acidic secretion or "sap" containing an enzyme that will dissolve the soft body parts. This digestive enzyme is similar to that which is produced by the leaves of the Sundew plant.

The Venus Flytrap grows from a bulb-like rootstalk and bears slender flower stalks which reach about a foot in height, producing a corymbs of white flowers which sprout in May and bloom in June. The stalk may bear between 1-15 white flowers. Each flower consists of 5 green sepals, 5 white petals, typically 15 stamens and 1 compound pistil. The leaves grow two to eight inches long and located at the base of the plant in a spreading rosette.

During the changing seasons the plant takes on varying characteristics. During the spring, leaves tend to be green with broad petioles which lateral extensions are referred to as "wings". Red coloration is limited or absent, if it is present, it is restricted to the glands on the inner surface of the traps. When late spring becomes summer, the spring leaves are terminated by flowering. When flowering has completed, the summer leaves are produced which are as long or longer, much more narrow and almost wingless. The summer leaves produce the largest traps which tend to grow vertically. With the onset of fall, winter-like leaves are produced which are the smallest. Frost may kill the leaves during the winter. Those which survive winter, tend to be prostrate and about the size of spring to summer leaves.

The bright red coloration in some flytraps seems to be influenced by its exposure to light. Though genetic factors play a role, flytraps thrive well in intense light with most of the plants developing the deep red maroon coloration in the traps, however, when there is insufficient lighting, the plants tend to develop with less healthy characteristics and remain a green pigmentation throughout. Although light contributes to their overall preferred health, direct sunlight is discouraged when cultivated in enclosed containers.

Venus Flytrap is the only known species in the genus Dionaea, therefore making it monotypical.

Kingdom	Plantae – plants
Subkingdom	Viridaeplantae – green plants
Infrakingdom	Streptophyta – land plants
Division	Tracheophyta – vascular plants
Subdivision	Spermatophytina – seed plants
Infradivision	Angiospermae – flowering plants
Class	Magnoliopsida
Superorder	Caryophyllanae
Order	Caryophyllales
Family	Droseraceae – sundews
Genus	Dionaea (J. Ellis) – Venus flytrap, Venus fly trap
Species	Dionaea muscipula (J. Ellis) – Venus fly trap, Venus flytrap

References and Further Reading

Charles Darwin, Insectivorous Plants, 1875

M. Shene, Biology of Flowering Plants, 1924

Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th Edition, ©1929

ITIS.gov, Taxonomical Database

The American Peoples Encyclopedia, ©1960

Collier's Encyclopedia, ©1960

Encyclopedia Britannica Micropedia, ©1984

Carnivorous Plants of the World, ©1986 by James and Patricia Pietropaolo

Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, ©1991

Venus Flytrap

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Family (Fabaceae) Order (Fabales)

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Pronunciation key ( fə bā′shə )

fa•ba•cea

[L. fabaceus < faba a bean].

Of the pea family of plants.

Fabales.

One of the largest orders of flowering plants. This order includes numerous species which provide important sources of food for humans and animals, such as alfalfa and clover, as well as beans, peanuts and peas.

Cassia chamaecrista is regarded as a synonym, or invalid name for the species. Presently, the term designated on itis.gov is Chamaecrista fasciculata var. fasciculata.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Chamaecrista (L.) Moench – sensitive pea Species Chamaecrista fasciculata (Michx.) Greene – partridge pea, sleepingplant, showy partridgepea Variety Chamaecrista fasciculata var. fasciculata (Michx.) Greene – sleepingplant, partridge pea Chamaecrista fasciculata var. fasciculata (Michx.) Greene, Taxonomic Serial No.: 566216

Many of these species also benefit the environment in that they have the capacity in conjunction with appropriate micro-organisms to convert biologically inert nitrogen in the atmosphere into nitrates, which form is metabolized by plants. While some other species possess this capability, the order Fabales is responsible for the majority of biological recycling. That factor, together with the high nutrient value of grazing plants, species are often incorporated in routine crop rotation practices.

Arthroclianthus andersonii (From New Caledonia) Validation for this scientific name can not currently be verified on itis.gov.

Cedrelingia cateniformis, (Common to Brazil) According to Cedrelinga catenaeformis its common name is Tornillo (Peru), Lacaica, Parica, Yacayaca (Brazil). The name can not currently be verified through the itis database.

General Characteristics

This order is distributed worldwide and exhibits the greatest diversity of morphological types in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Some species are the dominant varieties found among trees in the lands of the tropical African savanna, South America and Asia.

Traditionally named Pithecellobium auaremotemo, (Common to Brazil) According to Taxon: Pithecellobium auaremotemo Mart. is a synonym of Abarema cochliacarpos (Gomes) Barneby & J. W. Grimes, of the Genus: Pithecellobium Other refs. encyclopedia of life, Abarema cochliacarpos Abarema cochliocarpos calphotos.berkeley.edu

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Pithecellobium Mart. – blackbead Pithecellobium, Mart. Taxonomic Serial No.: 26870

They come in abundance of small trees and shrubs in drier subtropic ecosystems of Africa, America and Australia.

Vicia americana Floral and vegetative structures Drawing by M. Pahl.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Vicia L. – vetch Species Vicia americana Muhl. ex Willd. – American vetch, American purple vetch Vicia americana Muhl. ex Willd., Taxonomic Serial No.: 26331

In more temperate climates the order is predominantly herbaceous and most species belong to the family Fabaceae which contains cash crops such as peanuts and ground nuts; Arachis hypogaea (Peanuts), Cicer arietinum (chick peas), Glycine max (soybeans), Lens culinaris (lentils), alfalfa or lucerne (Medicago sativa), sweet clover, mung beans, kidney beans, peas, clovers, vetches and cowpeas.

Mimosa grahamii

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Mimosa L. – sensitive plant, mimosa Species Mimosa grahamii A. Gray – Graham's mimosa, Graham mimosa Mimosa grahamii A. Gray, Taxonomic Serial No.: 26786

Along with food crops, Fabales are well-known for shade and ornamental species, although some of the more rapid growing weed species are widely used for fodder crops. In South Africa and Australia Acacia species are widely used in production of gum exudate and wood.

Entada spictada, (Commonly found in Tropical Africa) Entada is a recognized genus on itis.gov. However, the status of this particular name remains an unknown.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Entada Adans. – callingcard vine Direct Children: Species Entada abyssinica Steud. ex A. Rich. – Abyssinia entada Species Entada gigas (L.) Fawc. & Rendle – nicker bean Species Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr. – St. Thomas bean Species Entada polystachya (L.) DC. – callingcard vine Species Entada rheedei Spreng. Entada, Adans. Taxonomic Serial No.: 500261

The order Fabales is a predominantly woody group, the more advanced herbaceous plant groups, characteristic of temperate climates, evolved from such tropical, wooded ancestors. Species of the order are abundant on all continents except Antarctica. They occur as trees, shrubs, vines, annuals and even though more rare, floating aquatics. Such an example is Neptunia oleracea or Garden Puff, a member of the family Mimosaceae which attaches to the bottoms of shallow lakes in India, and is used as an edible vegetable.

Enterolobium cyclocarpum, (Found in West Indies) This species checks out on itis.gov. with common name: Monkeysoap

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Enterolobium Mart. Species Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb. – monkeysoap Enterolobium cyclocarpum, (Jacq.) Griseb., Taxonomic Serial No.: 502307

Bizarre species are abundant in the savanna and semi-desert areas in western Australia most of which belong to Podalyria, of the family Fabaceae and believed the oddities stem from long isolation from the flora of Asia.
Best known for its fruit, the Order Fabales and often referred to as the Leguminales order, because its fruit, a legume, is the single most-notable characteristic the group is recognized for. A legume is a single-chamber, two-valve seed pod with placentation such as occurs with the common pea Pisum sativum.

Traditionally named Cathormiom altissimum, (Common to Tropical Africa), according to USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Germplasm Resources Information Network, it is a synonym of Albizia altissima.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Albizia Durazz. Albizia, Durazz. Taxonomic Serial No.: 26448

Legumes take a variety of shapes and forms, however, samaras are single-seeded, winged, indehiscent (does not split along a seam), pods and loments (multi-seeded, indehiscent pods, constricted between seeds and upon maturity break off, separate with capacity to reproduce. Of the more unusual legumes is that of the peanut, a fruit that matures underground. The flower of the peanut plant is above ground but with age it assumes a position closer to the soil surface so the ovary can elongate and develop as a subterranean pod.
Seeds borne within various legumes types are variegated, ranging from the size of a pin's head (such as Lotus species) to the size of a baseball (Mora excelsa). Legume seeds can be colorful such as Abrus precatorius. Some seeds have been used for a variety of purposes, including use as currency by primitive people and in the production of beads and handbags due to their abnormal hard coat. Some are poisonous if eaten.

Prosopis strombulifera, (Located in South America) Prosopis strombulifera is listed as an accepted, verified name with itis.gov.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Prosopis L. – mesquite Species Prosopis strombulifera (Lam.) Benth. – Argentine screwbean, creeping mesquite Prosopis strombulifera, (Lam.) Benth.,Taxonomic Serial No.: 504621

Natural History and Evolution

The large worldwide distribution of this order is a result of its early dispersion throughout the tropics and later adaptations to more temperate habitats. Effective dispersal of seeds is achieved by the vastly variegated seed pods and by largely self-pollinated flowers found among many of the more advanced groups of the family Fabaceae. Seed coats are typically hard and can withstand water which allows the seed to survive longer exposure to the elements. Some seeds from the genus Cassia have been known to germinate after having been in dry storage for up to 200 years.
Other reproductive specializations include cross-pollination, cleistogamy (self-pollination), and vegetative reproduction (asexual).

Traditionally named Acacia arabica common in (Asia) but is no longer the valid scientific name for this species. The corrected name given by itis.gov is Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Vachellia Wight & Arn. Species Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb. – gum arabic tree Vachellia nilotica, (L.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb., Taxonomic Serial No.: 819931

One adaptation in a few of the more tropical species is that of myrmecophilism, in which vegetative specializations have been developed to accommodate ants. Two such features are secretory glands on the leaves which are used by ants for feeding purposes and very large thorns on the stems in which they live.
Specialists believe that by living off the excretory products of the plant, the ants provide protection against potential leaf-eaters like aphids, grasshoppers and larger grazing animals.
The dispersal of pollen is primarily provided by insects, namely bees. Other means of pollination occur, and in one instance tropical fruit bats are the principal pollinator (Parkia).

Traditionally listed as Prioria copaitera. Found in West Indies and Central America. The USDA Forest Service states its common names are Amansamujer, Copachu (Colombia), Camibar (Costa Rica), Muramo, Curucai (Venezuela). PubMed offers a research paper the Cativo, and additional images from the Smithsonian. However, without verification on itis, the current standing of the name remains an unknown.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Fabaceae Taxonomic Serial No.: 500059

Distinguishing Characteristics

Some members of the order are sensitive to touch, temperature, and light changes. Touching the "sensitive plant" or "shame plant" results in very rapid movements of the whole or part of the leaf, (Mimosa pudica) is often cultivated due to this effect. Many of the species of this order have similar characteristics. The Mimosa tree Albizia julibrissin, also known as a powderpuff or silk tree, folds its leaflets at dusk, decreasing the amount of exposure to the elements. The adaptive significance is unknown, but the movements itself is caused by changes in water pressure at the base of both the leafstalks (petioles) and leaflets.
The single floral feature most characteristic of the entire order is the hypanthium, a structure which is formed by fusion at the base of the sepals, petals and stamens which form a cup about the base of the ovary. With the exception of this characteristic floral types are variegated, with flowers that range from regular to irregular. Flowers of the family Caesalpiniaceae are somewhat intermediate between the extremes.

Traditionally named Trachylobium verrucosum, and found in Madagascar. itis.gov notes that the name is invalid. The valid name and classification is Hymenaea verrucosa, Gaertn., Taxonomic Serial No.: 506321

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Hymenaea L. Species Hymenaea verrucosa Gaertn. – East African copal Hymenaea verrucosa Gaertn., Taxonomic Serial No.: 506321

The petals, which are uniformly five in nearly all species are characteristically modified into a so-called papilionaceous (butterfly-like) flower, the upper petal (called the banner) is usually enlarged and more colorful than other petals. The two lateral petals are wing-like structures and are termed "Wings". The two basal petals are united near the middle to form a boat shaped structure called the keel.
The stamens, or male reproductive structure, usually 10 in number are also highly modified in this family. They are joined in a single, tubular structure which is called "monadelphous" or more often into a set of nine united stamens that reside in the keel plus a separate stamen that stands above the other nine and just below the banner itself. The latter is termed "diadelphous". Some possess free stamens and separate keel petals.
Pollen grains in the order are quite distinctive and have proven of value in defining many of the classifications in several of the families. The fruiting structures within the order, while uniformly derived from a single carpel or ovary, are variegated in size, shape, texture and range from herbaceous coiled, bristly fruits to the elongate (up to several feet in length) woody pods.

Traditionally called Pterogyne nitens, (Found in Brazil), but at this time the name cannot be verified. Information is available at this link regarding the species. The USDA Forestry Service reports its common names as Amendoim, Viraro (Argentina), Ibiraro, Pau fava (Brazil), Guiaro. Encyclopedia of Life (eol) designates three classifications for the species.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Class Magnoliopsida Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Pterogyne Species Pterogyne nitens Tul. Classification according to Encyclopedia of Life, Pterogyne nitens. A final accessment can not be determined through itis.gov at this time.

Many species are known well for neutralizing nitrogen that is, to convert it into a form that plants can utilize such as the nitrate form. This is accomplished by symbiotic fixation. The root nodules (swelling) is formed on the plant in reaction to an infection caused by soil, a bacteria in the genus Rhizobium. Root nodulation occurs in all three families, however presumably does not occur in all species. The phenomena is more common in the family Fabaceae.

Traditionally named Caesalpinia bonducella, (Found in Tropics). At this time, the species cannot be verified although the Genus is registered in the itis database. Additional information on the species is available at pubmed pubmed Flowers of India, fever nut

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Caesalpinia L. – nicker, caesalpinia, poinciana Caesalpinia, L., Taxonomic Serial No.: 26499

In the leaves and fruits of the Fabales order there are a large range of secondary compounds that are noteworthy which include flavanoids, alkaloids, terpenoids non-protein amino acids, among others.

Erythrina rubrinervia, (From Central America) More information Family: Fabaceae/pap., Erythrina rubrinervia Gallito, Palo de pito, Palo santo, Pernilla de casa, Peronil Erythrina rubrinervia, Kunth No current information was found on itis.gov to verify validation of the current name.

The scientific name Cyclocarpa stellaris, (From Africa) can not be verified through the itis.gov database, however the following provide information on this species. Cyclocarpa stellaris Baker, Oliv., Fl.Trop.Afr. 2:151 (1871) Cyclocarpa stellaris, encyclopedia of life Entry for Cyclocarpa stellaris Afzel. ex Bak., jstor.org Cyclolobium claussenii, (From Brazil) This species can not be verified on itis.gov database. However, the following links provide further information on this scientific name. Cyclolobium claussenii Isotype of Cyclolobium claussenii Benth. Cyclolobium claussenii

The toxic chemical compound rotenone is abundant in roots and stems of some species. Primitive people sometimes used these plants for fish kills. Another example is that some alkaloids are concentrated in species belonging to the genus Astragalus and have been found to poison to livestock, commonly referred to as "loco weeds," by cattlemen in North America. Following heavy consumption, livestock seem to "go loco" and become unmanageable.
Though many species contain toxins, most plants are palatable and nutritious due to high concentrations of vitamins and proteins.

Traditionally its scientific name has been Millettia dielsiana (Found in China). Though the scientific name is presently not represented in the itis database, the genus is. Therefore it is presented with available information.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Millettia Wight & Arn. Millettia, Wight & Arn., Taxonomic Serial No.: 819599

Except for the soybean and peanut, species are not especially noted for the oil content of the seeds. Most seeds contain only about 10 percent oil content by weight. The fat content of many legumes for consumption by humans is only between 1 and 2 percent. Legume seeds generally are highest in nutritive content in carbohydrates vs. protein and fat.

Colutea arborescens, (From Europe and Orient)

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Colutea L. Species Colutea arborescens L. – bladder senna, bladdersenna Colutea arborescens, L., Taxonomic Serial No.: 26550

Traditional Classification

Traditionally the order Fabales was divisible into three families or subfamilies.

1. Caesalpiniaceae (not accepted by itis.gov).
2. Mimosaceae (not accepted by itis.gov).
3. Fabaceae accepted by itis.gov.

Today, the order Fabales is divided into four families.

1. Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes
2. Family Polygalaceae – milkworts
3. Family Quillajaceae
4. Family Surianaceae

Taxonomic Hierarchy
Kingdom	Plantae – Vegetal, plants
Subkingdom	Viridaeplantae – green plants
Infrakingdom	Streptophyta – land plants
Division	Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes
Subdivision	Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants
Infradivision	Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms
Class	Magnoliopsida
Superorder	Rosanae
Order	Fabales
Direct Children:
Family	Fabaceae – peas, legumes
Family	Polygalaceae – milkworts
Family	Quillajaceae
Family	Surianaceae
Fabales, Taxonomic Serial No.: 500022

The Fabales order was historically treated as consisting of a single family name Leguminosae (not accepted by itis) of the order Rosales (accepted by itis). The family was subdivided into subfamilies. Mismosoideae, Caesalpinioideae, Papilionoideae (sometimes referred to as Faboideae) Kramerioideae. The trend has been to remove the latter subfamily, consisting of a single genus Krameria (valid by itis.gov), to the order Polygalales (not accepted by itis). The three remaining subfamilies are then treated at the family level an members of the order Fabales. The order can be distinguished from Rosales (valid) by the solitary carpel, compound leaves which are often more numerous, united stamens and by the fruit. There is no single character that serves a method to distinguish between Fabales and Rosales but morphological characteristics that distinguish both.
Clearly there is much need to obtain detailed morphological, cytological and chemical analyses of the species for many are poorly known and represented in museums by limited collections and some groups neglected by experts. With chemosystematics (taxonomy based on chemical factors) it is more likely that some of the classifications will be reconsidered.

Traditional scientific name, Centrolobium robustum(From Brazil). The USDA forest service reports, common name: zebrawood. Current standing with ITIS remains an unknown.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae

Fossil Record

There are abundant fossils of the Fabales order dating back to the Early Tertiary Period (Eocene Epoch) beginning about 54 million years ago). Most fossils are similar to present day woody genera. Thus, the order was presumably well developed across several continents, possibly earlier during the Cretaceous period around 136 million years ago.
At that time they had already developed in essentially the same form as those represented living today by extant genera. Fossil materials do not exist that serve to link the order to other orders, consequently most phyletic treatments of the group are based almost entirely on comparative morphological and distributional data among extant species.

Abrus precatorius, (From Tropics)

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Abrus Adans. Species Abrus precatorius L. – rosarypea, crab's eye, precatory bean, rosary pea Abrus precatorius, L., Taxonomic Serial No.: 26416

Phylogeny

It is believed the order had its origin in the tropical regions from woody ancestors, the herbaceous species being structurally reduced, but more highly evolved types which arose independently in several phyletic lines presumably adapted to more vigorous climatic conditions that developed during the time of the Tertiary.

The name, Dolichos bicontortus (From Asia) is not recognized on itis.gov. However the genus is, and presented here as is.

Taxonomic Hierarchy Kingdom Plantae – Vegetal, plants Subkingdom Viridaeplantae – green plants Infrakingdom Streptophyta – land plants Division Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes Subdivision Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants Infradivision Angiospermae – flowering plants, angiosperms Class Magnoliopsida Superorder Rosanae Order Fabales Family Fabaceae – peas, legumes Genus Dolichos L. Dolichos, L., Taxonomic Serial No.: 819602

References

• Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition) ©1955
• Fabaceae, Taxonomic Serial No.: 500059
• Encyclopedia Britannica, ©1984

Further Reading

• Nutrition of the Legumes, ©1958 by E.G. Hallsworth
• The Genera of Flowering Plants, ©1964 by J. Hutchinson
• Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien, ©1894
• Legumes in Agriculture, ©1953 by Whyte, Nilsson-Leissner and Trumble
• Chemotaxonomy of the Leguminosae, ©1971 by Harborne, Boulter and Turner
• Drawings by M. Pahl, based on, Evolution and phylogeny of flowering plants: Dicotyledons; facts and theory, with over 550 illustrations and maps by the author , by J. Hutchinson.

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